Election interference is a pervasive threat to the integrity of democracy, with implications far beyond troll farms and hacking. Scholars and policymakers are increasingly describing interference as a broader phenomenon that is less about electoral fraud or intimidation than about the motivations, intentions, and contexts in which voters think about politics. Even seemingly innocuous conversations with friends or baristas may be part of an influence campaign.

While the exact impact of foreign interference remains unclear, the US government has taken steps to combat it. A central component of this effort is a holistic approach to countering election cyberthreats and foreign influence operations, ensuring that all agencies working on these issues are coordinating with each other prior to and during elections, and that they are responding in a coordinated fashion to protect voters and election infrastructure.

However, the threat of interference is not just from external actors: domestic groups are also weaponizing technology for their own ends. A partisan media ecosystem – from Facebook to TikTok – is rife with politically motivated disinformation and racist and violent rhetoric that exploits and inflames America’s deep societal divisions, threatening the democratic process. This propaganda often outpaces fact-checking and counter-messaging efforts, aided by automated bots and nonhuman entities that bolster the effectiveness of foreign interference.

In addition, the use of law enforcement to interfere in the election process is increasing in a number of states. For example, Florida’s governor recently made a public announcement that he would arrest people with past felony convictions who try to vote, encouraging them not to participate in the election. This is an alarming new development.